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This excerpt from the Stanford Emerging Technology Review (SETR) focuses on neuroscience, one of ten key technologies studied in this educational initiative. SETR, a project of the Hoover Institution and the Stanford School of Engineering, harnesses the expertise of Stanford University’s leading science and engineering faculty. Download the full report here and subscribe here for news and updates.
Neuroscience is a multidisciplinary field of study that focuses on the components, functions, and dysfunctions of the brain and our nervous system at every level. It reaches from the earliest stages of embryonic development to dysfunctions and degeneration later in life, and its study spans from the individual molecules that shape the functions of a neuron to the complex system dynamics that constitute our thoughts and dictate our behaviors.
The power of the human brain is what has allowed us to become the dominant species on Earth without being the fastest, strongest, or biggest.
All of our consciousness and behavior, from the action of stabbing a potato with a fork to contemplating the mysteries of the universe, is underpinned by which neurons connect with one another, the neurotransmitter/receptor pairs involved, the strength of the connections, and the electrical properties of the neurons—as well as by how these various features change over time.
Just as electrical connectors create a path for electricity to flow through a circuit, neural circuits can be defined by the parallel and recurrent connections between neurons that occur to compute a specific function, such as deciding to move a limb or visually identifying an object.
A particular brain region can be considered like a magnificent choir of a thousand voices. Sampling just 1 percent of the singers can provide a pretty good idea of the music the overall choir is producing at any given time. Researchers already have the ability to record from thousands of neurons at a time. This provides useful insight into how a brain functions, even if we don’t understand in detail what the remaining 99 percent of its neurons are doing.
Three research areas in neuroscience show major promise for concrete applications: brain–machine interfaces (neuroengineering), degeneration and aging (neurohealth), and the science of addiction (neurodiscovery). Most of the economic impacts of neuroscience connect in some way to the health care industry and its search for treatments for neurodegenerative disorders (such as Alzheimer’s and Parkinson’s disease) and neuropsychiatric disorders (addiction, depression, and schizophrenia) and neural prosthesis (brain–machine interfaces to restore limb function and speech).
Three directions
Neuroengineering: A brain–machine interface is a device that maps neural impulses from the brain and translates these signals to computers. The potential applications for mature brain–machine interface technologies are wide-ranging: the augmentation of vision, other senses, and physical mobility; direct mind-to-computer interfacing; and computer-assisted memory recall and cognition are all within the theoretical realms of possibility. However, headlines about mind-reading chip implants are exaggerated and still remain in the realm of science fiction.
One encouraging example of a brain–machine interface is the recent development of an artificial retina. Other brain–machine interfaces are currently being developed, though they are less mature or less ambitious than the artificial retina project. Some of these decode brain activity without controlling a neural signal. For instance, one interface can translate brain activity in areas controlling motor functions into signals that can then be sent to an artificial prosthetic limb.
Neurohealth: Neurodegeneration is a major challenge as humans live longer. Alzheimer’s disease is of particular concern. In the United States alone, the annual cost of treating it is projected to grow from $305 billion in 2020 to $1 trillion by 2050.
As modern medicine and society enable longer lifespans, the human body and brain remain maladapted to maintaining nervous system function for decades past childbearing age.
Another form of neurodegeneration results from traumatic brain injury (TBI), which can manifest itself in a range of complex symptoms and pathologies. Traumatic impact to brain systems can affect cognitive and behavioral functions in ways that lead to long-term and severe psychiatric conditions requiring specialized care. TBI offers insights into other neuropsychiatric disorders and can pave the way for innovative concepts in neurodegenerative disease.
Neurodiscovery: Researchers are working to understand the neural bases of addiction and chronic pain while collaborating with psychiatrists and policymakers to address the opioid epidemic. Estimates of the economic costs of that epidemic range from $100 billion to $1 trillion a year when the loss of potential lifetime
earnings of overdose victims is included. Additional economic losses occur due to depletion of the labor force and the billions spent on the criminal justice system and health care related to addiction. Beyond economics, there are significant emotional costs to individuals and their families and friends. Death also takes its toll: the number of opioid deaths in the United States rose from 21,000 in 2010 to 83,000 in 2022, placing deaths from opioid overdoses at the same level as those caused by diabetes and Alzheimer’s. (Overdose deaths from opioids fell 38 percent between the end of 2023 and the end of the following year, but it is unclear if that trend will continue.)
Neuroscience has a potentially important role to play in addressing addiction. For example, a nonaddictive painkiller drug as effective as current-generation opioids could be transformative. It may also be possible to develop drugs that inhibit social aversion during withdrawal, thereby assisting patients in seeking help or companionship from friends, families, recovery programs, and doctors.
Turning research into action
Contrasting work on artificial retinas with that on the science of neurodegeneration and addiction illustrates the two primary aspects of neuroscience applications: a scientific aspect that focuses on identifying relevant brain circuits and understanding how these function and compute; and an engineering aspect focused on how to safely use devices to stimulate the relevant brain circuits to create the desired responses.
Once the basic science has been developed and a research area approaches an economically viable application, industry does a much better job of developing it. Consequently, helping to smooth the friction of moving a project from academia to industry is crucial to overcoming roadblocks in development. Incubators and accelerators can help transition the findings of basic research to applications by aiding in high-throughput screening—the use of automated equipment to rapidly test samples—and in prototyping. With viable prototypes, new companies can be created or licenses granted to existing companies to produce a final product. Such activities are critical in facilitating the integration of well-understood scientific theory and technical engineering into final applications.
The brain is perhaps the least understood, yet most important, organ in the human body. Demand for neuroscience research advances and applications—including understanding brain circuitry, developing new drugs, treating diseases and disorders, and creating brain–machine interfaces—is therefore expected to continue to grow considerably over the coming years.
Most advances involve incremental progress, expanding our theoretical foundations rather than producing revolutionary leaps to futuristic applications.
This vast gap between public expectations and scientific reality creates an environment ripe for exploitation. Impatience for solutions to pressing medical problems like dementia and mental illness leaves many open to dubious proclamations or pseudoscience.
